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Linux 用户空间应用程序通过声卡驱动程序（一般牵涉到多个设备驱动程序）和 Linux 内核 ALSA 框架导出的 PCM 设备文件，如 /dev/snd/pcmC0D0c 和 /dev/snd/pcmC0D0p 等，与 Linux 内核音频设备驱动程序和音频硬件进行数据传递。PCM 设备文件的文件操作定义 (位于 sound/core/pcm_native.c) 如下：

const struct file_operations snd_pcm_f_ops[2] = {{.owner =		THIS_MODULE,.write =		snd_pcm_write,.write_iter =		snd_pcm_writev,.open =			snd_pcm_playback_open,.release =		snd_pcm_release,.llseek =		no_llseek,.poll =			snd_pcm_poll,.unlocked_ioctl =	snd_pcm_ioctl,.compat_ioctl = 	snd_pcm_ioctl_compat,.mmap =			snd_pcm_mmap,.fasync =		snd_pcm_fasync,.get_unmapped_area =	snd_pcm_get_unmapped_area,},{.owner =		THIS_MODULE,.read =			snd_pcm_read,.read_iter =		snd_pcm_readv,.open =			snd_pcm_capture_open,.release =		snd_pcm_release,.llseek =		no_llseek,.poll =			snd_pcm_poll,.unlocked_ioctl =	snd_pcm_ioctl,.compat_ioctl = 	snd_pcm_ioctl_compat,.mmap =			snd_pcm_mmap,.fasync =		snd_pcm_fasync,.get_unmapped_area =	snd_pcm_get_unmapped_area,}
};

大多数情况下，音频设备会同时提供播放和录制功能，用于播放和录制的 PCM 设备文件是一起导出的，播放和录制的 PCM 设备文件的文件操作也是一起定义的，其中索引为 SNDRV_PCM_STREAM_PLAYBACK，也就是 0 的文件操作用于播放，索引为 SNDRV_PCM_STREAM_CAPTURE，也就是 1 的文件操作用于录制。

Linux 用户空间有 alsa-lib 和 tinyalsa 等库可用于与 Linux 内核 ALSA 框架交互。alsa-lib 和 tinyalsa 等库主要通过 ioctl 命令与 Linux 内核 ALSA 框架交互。PCM 设备文件的 ioctl 操作 snd_pcm_ioctl() 函数定义 (位于 sound/core/pcm_native.c) 如下：

static int snd_pcm_common_ioctl(struct file *file,struct snd_pcm_substream *substream,unsigned int cmd, void __user *arg)
{struct snd_pcm_file *pcm_file = file->private_data;int res;if (PCM_RUNTIME_CHECK(substream))return -ENXIO;res = snd_power_wait(substream->pcm->card, SNDRV_CTL_POWER_D0);if (res < 0)return res;switch (cmd) {case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_PVERSION:return put_user(SNDRV_PCM_VERSION, (int __user *)arg) ? -EFAULT : 0;case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_INFO:return snd_pcm_info_user(substream, arg);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_TSTAMP:	/* just for compatibility */return 0;case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_TTSTAMP:return snd_pcm_tstamp(substream, arg);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_USER_PVERSION:if (get_user(pcm_file->user_pversion,(unsigned int __user *)arg))return -EFAULT;return 0;case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_HW_REFINE:return snd_pcm_hw_refine_user(substream, arg);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_HW_PARAMS:return snd_pcm_hw_params_user(substream, arg);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_HW_FREE:return snd_pcm_hw_free(substream);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_SW_PARAMS:return snd_pcm_sw_params_user(substream, arg);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_STATUS32:return snd_pcm_status_user32(substream, arg, false);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_STATUS_EXT32:return snd_pcm_status_user32(substream, arg, true);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_STATUS64:return snd_pcm_status_user64(substream, arg, false);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_STATUS_EXT64:return snd_pcm_status_user64(substream, arg, true);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_CHANNEL_INFO:return snd_pcm_channel_info_user(substream, arg);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_PREPARE:return snd_pcm_prepare(substream, file);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_RESET:return snd_pcm_reset(substream);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_START:return snd_pcm_start_lock_irq(substream);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_LINK:return snd_pcm_link(substream, (int)(unsigned long) arg);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_UNLINK:return snd_pcm_unlink(substream);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_RESUME:return snd_pcm_resume(substream);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_XRUN:return snd_pcm_xrun(substream);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_HWSYNC:return snd_pcm_hwsync(substream);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_DELAY:{snd_pcm_sframes_t delay;snd_pcm_sframes_t __user *res = arg;int err;err = snd_pcm_delay(substream, &delay);if (err)return err;if (put_user(delay, res))return -EFAULT;return 0;}case __SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_SYNC_PTR32:return snd_pcm_ioctl_sync_ptr_compat(substream, arg);case __SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_SYNC_PTR64:return snd_pcm_sync_ptr(substream, arg);
#ifdef CONFIG_SND_SUPPORT_OLD_APIcase SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_HW_REFINE_OLD:return snd_pcm_hw_refine_old_user(substream, arg);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_HW_PARAMS_OLD:return snd_pcm_hw_params_old_user(substream, arg);
#endifcase SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_DRAIN:return snd_pcm_drain(substream, file);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_DROP:return snd_pcm_drop(substream);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_PAUSE:return snd_pcm_pause_lock_irq(substream, (unsigned long)arg);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_WRITEI_FRAMES:case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_READI_FRAMES:return snd_pcm_xferi_frames_ioctl(substream, arg);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_WRITEN_FRAMES:case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_READN_FRAMES:return snd_pcm_xfern_frames_ioctl(substream, arg);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_REWIND:return snd_pcm_rewind_ioctl(substream, arg);case SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_FORWARD:return snd_pcm_forward_ioctl(substream, arg);}pcm_dbg(substream->pcm, "unknown ioctl = 0x%x\n", cmd);return -ENOTTY;
}static long snd_pcm_ioctl(struct file *file, unsigned int cmd,unsigned long arg)
{struct snd_pcm_file *pcm_file;pcm_file = file->private_data;if (((cmd >> 8) & 0xff) != 'A')return -ENOTTY;return snd_pcm_common_ioctl(file, pcm_file->substream, cmd,(void __user *)arg);
}

alsa-lib 和 tinyalsa 等库主要通过 SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_WRITEI_FRAMES、SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_READI_FRAMES、SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_WRITEN_FRAMES 和 SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_READN_FRAMES 等四个 ioctl 命令与 Linux 内核 ALSA 框架交换数据。这几个 ioctl 命令主要的区别在于，传递的数据的格式不同，SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_READI_FRAMES 和 SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_WRITEI_FRAMES 命令用于读写 interleaved 格式的音频数据，SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_READN_FRAMES 和 SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_WRITEN_FRAMES 命令则用于读写 noninterleaved 格式的音频数据。

SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_READI_FRAMES 和 SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_WRITEI_FRAMES 命令由 snd_pcm_xferi_frames_ioctl() 函数处理，SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_READN_FRAMES 和 SNDRV_PCM_IOCTL_WRITEN_FRAMES 命令由 snd_pcm_xfern_frames_ioctl() 函数处理，这两个函数定义 (位于 sound/core/pcm_native.c) 如下：

static int snd_pcm_xferi_frames_ioctl(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream,struct snd_xferi __user *_xferi)
{struct snd_xferi xferi;struct snd_pcm_runtime *runtime = substream->runtime;snd_pcm_sframes_t result;if (runtime->status->state == SNDRV_PCM_STATE_OPEN)return -EBADFD;if (put_user(0, &_xferi->result))return -EFAULT;if (copy_from_user(&xferi, _xferi, sizeof(xferi)))return -EFAULT;if (substream->stream == SNDRV_PCM_STREAM_PLAYBACK)result = snd_pcm_lib_write(substream, xferi.buf, xferi.frames);elseresult = snd_pcm_lib_read(substream, xferi.buf, xferi.frames);if (put_user(result, &_xferi->result))return -EFAULT;return result < 0 ? result : 0;
}static int snd_pcm_xfern_frames_ioctl(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream,struct snd_xfern __user *_xfern)
{struct snd_xfern xfern;struct snd_pcm_runtime *runtime = substream->runtime;void *bufs;snd_pcm_sframes_t result;if (runtime->status->state == SNDRV_PCM_STATE_OPEN)return -EBADFD;if (runtime->channels > 128)return -EINVAL;if (put_user(0, &_xfern->result))return -EFAULT;if (copy_from_user(&xfern, _xfern, sizeof(xfern)))return -EFAULT;bufs = memdup_user(xfern.bufs, sizeof(void *) * runtime->channels);if (IS_ERR(bufs))return PTR_ERR(bufs);if (substream->stream == SNDRV_PCM_STREAM_PLAYBACK)result = snd_pcm_lib_writev(substream, bufs, xfern.frames);elseresult = snd_pcm_lib_readv(substream, bufs, xfern.frames);kfree(bufs);if (put_user(result, &_xfern->result))return -EFAULT;return result < 0 ? result : 0;
}

snd_pcm_xferi_frames_ioctl() 和 snd_pcm_xfern_frames_ioctl() 函数将参数复制到内核空间栈上，并通过 snd_pcm_lib_write()、snd_pcm_lib_read()、snd_pcm_lib_writev() 和 snd_pcm_lib_readv() 四个函数执行读写操作。这四个函数定义 (位于 include/sound/pcm.h) 如下：

static inline snd_pcm_sframes_t
snd_pcm_lib_write(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream,const void __user *buf, snd_pcm_uframes_t frames)
{return __snd_pcm_lib_xfer(substream, (void __force *)buf, true, frames, false);
}static inline snd_pcm_sframes_t
snd_pcm_lib_read(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream,void __user *buf, snd_pcm_uframes_t frames)
{return __snd_pcm_lib_xfer(substream, (void __force *)buf, true, frames, false);
}static inline snd_pcm_sframes_t
snd_pcm_lib_writev(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream,void __user **bufs, snd_pcm_uframes_t frames)
{return __snd_pcm_lib_xfer(substream, (void *)bufs, false, frames, false);
}static inline snd_pcm_sframes_t
snd_pcm_lib_readv(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream,void __user **bufs, snd_pcm_uframes_t frames)
{return __snd_pcm_lib_xfer(substream, (void *)bufs, false, frames, false);
}

所有的音频数据传递操作最终都由 __snd_pcm_lib_xfer() 函数完成。__snd_pcm_lib_xfer() 函数定义 (位于 sound/core/pcm_lib.c) 如下：

typedef int (*pcm_transfer_f)(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream,int channel, unsigned long hwoff,void *buf, unsigned long bytes);typedef int (*pcm_copy_f)(struct snd_pcm_substream *, snd_pcm_uframes_t, void *,snd_pcm_uframes_t, snd_pcm_uframes_t, pcm_transfer_f);. . . . . .
/* sanity-check for read/write methods */
static int pcm_sanity_check(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream)
{struct snd_pcm_runtime *runtime;if (PCM_RUNTIME_CHECK(substream))return -ENXIO;runtime = substream->runtime;if (snd_BUG_ON(!substream->ops->copy_user && !runtime->dma_area))return -EINVAL;if (runtime->status->state == SNDRV_PCM_STATE_OPEN)return -EBADFD;return 0;
}static int pcm_accessible_state(struct snd_pcm_runtime *runtime)
{switch (runtime->status->state) {case SNDRV_PCM_STATE_PREPARED:case SNDRV_PCM_STATE_RUNNING:case SNDRV_PCM_STATE_PAUSED:return 0;case SNDRV_PCM_STATE_XRUN:return -EPIPE;case SNDRV_PCM_STATE_SUSPENDED:return -ESTRPIPE;default:return -EBADFD;}
}/* update to the given appl_ptr and call ack callback if needed;* when an error is returned, take back to the original value*/
int pcm_lib_apply_appl_ptr(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream,snd_pcm_uframes_t appl_ptr)
{struct snd_pcm_runtime *runtime = substream->runtime;snd_pcm_uframes_t old_appl_ptr = runtime->control->appl_ptr;int ret;if (old_appl_ptr == appl_ptr)return 0;runtime->control->appl_ptr = appl_ptr;if (substream->ops->ack) {ret = substream->ops->ack(substream);if (ret < 0) {runtime->control->appl_ptr = old_appl_ptr;return ret;}}trace_applptr(substream, old_appl_ptr, appl_ptr);return 0;
}/* the common loop for read/write data */
snd_pcm_sframes_t __snd_pcm_lib_xfer(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream,void *data, bool interleaved,snd_pcm_uframes_t size, bool in_kernel)
{struct snd_pcm_runtime *runtime = substream->runtime;snd_pcm_uframes_t xfer = 0;snd_pcm_uframes_t offset = 0;snd_pcm_uframes_t avail;pcm_copy_f writer;pcm_transfer_f transfer;bool nonblock;bool is_playback;int err;err = pcm_sanity_check(substream);if (err < 0)return err;is_playback = substream->stream == SNDRV_PCM_STREAM_PLAYBACK;if (interleaved) {if (runtime->access != SNDRV_PCM_ACCESS_RW_INTERLEAVED &&runtime->channels > 1)return -EINVAL;writer = interleaved_copy;} else {if (runtime->access != SNDRV_PCM_ACCESS_RW_NONINTERLEAVED)return -EINVAL;writer = noninterleaved_copy;}if (!data) {if (is_playback)transfer = fill_silence;elsereturn -EINVAL;} else if (in_kernel) {if (substream->ops->copy_kernel)transfer = substream->ops->copy_kernel;elsetransfer = is_playback ?default_write_copy_kernel : default_read_copy_kernel;} else {if (substream->ops->copy_user)transfer = (pcm_transfer_f)substream->ops->copy_user;elsetransfer = is_playback ?default_write_copy : default_read_copy;}if (size == 0)return 0;nonblock = !!(substream->f_flags & O_NONBLOCK);snd_pcm_stream_lock_irq(substream);err = pcm_accessible_state(runtime);if (err < 0)goto _end_unlock;runtime->twake = runtime->control->avail_min ? : 1;if (runtime->status->state == SNDRV_PCM_STATE_RUNNING)snd_pcm_update_hw_ptr(substream);/** If size < start_threshold, wait indefinitely. Another* thread may start capture*/if (!is_playback &&runtime->status->state == SNDRV_PCM_STATE_PREPARED &&size >= runtime->start_threshold) {err = snd_pcm_start(substream);if (err < 0)goto _end_unlock;}avail = snd_pcm_avail(substream);while (size > 0) {snd_pcm_uframes_t frames, appl_ptr, appl_ofs;snd_pcm_uframes_t cont;if (!avail) {if (!is_playback &&runtime->status->state == SNDRV_PCM_STATE_DRAINING) {snd_pcm_stop(substream, SNDRV_PCM_STATE_SETUP);goto _end_unlock;}if (nonblock) {err = -EAGAIN;goto _end_unlock;}runtime->twake = min_t(snd_pcm_uframes_t, size,runtime->control->avail_min ? : 1);err = wait_for_avail(substream, &avail);if (err < 0)goto _end_unlock;if (!avail)continue; /* draining */}frames = size > avail ? avail : size;appl_ptr = READ_ONCE(runtime->control->appl_ptr);appl_ofs = appl_ptr % runtime->buffer_size;cont = runtime->buffer_size - appl_ofs;if (frames > cont)frames = cont;if (snd_BUG_ON(!frames)) {err = -EINVAL;goto _end_unlock;}if (!atomic_inc_unless_negative(&runtime->buffer_accessing)) {err = -EBUSY;goto _end_unlock;}snd_pcm_stream_unlock_irq(substream);err = writer(substream, appl_ofs, data, offset, frames,transfer);snd_pcm_stream_lock_irq(substream);atomic_dec(&runtime->buffer_accessing);if (err < 0)goto _end_unlock;err = pcm_accessible_state(runtime);if (err < 0)goto _end_unlock;appl_ptr += frames;if (appl_ptr >= runtime->boundary)appl_ptr -= runtime->boundary;err = pcm_lib_apply_appl_ptr(substream, appl_ptr);if (err < 0)goto _end_unlock;offset += frames;size -= frames;xfer += frames;avail -= frames;if (is_playback &&runtime->status->state == SNDRV_PCM_STATE_PREPARED &&snd_pcm_playback_hw_avail(runtime) >= (snd_pcm_sframes_t)runtime->start_threshold) {err = snd_pcm_start(substream);if (err < 0)goto _end_unlock;}}_end_unlock:runtime->twake = 0;if (xfer > 0 && err >= 0)snd_pcm_update_state(substream, runtime);snd_pcm_stream_unlock_irq(substream);return xfer > 0 ? (snd_pcm_sframes_t)xfer : err;
}
EXPORT_SYMBOL(__snd_pcm_lib_xfer);

__snd_pcm_lib_xfer() 函数的执行过程如下：

1. 调用 pcm_sanity_check() 函数执行合理性检查，pcm_sanity_check() 函数检查 DMA buffer 和状态。音频设备驱动程序需要保证，在 __snd_pcm_lib_xfer() 函数执行时，DMA buffer 已经准备好。

2. 根据传入的参数，即数据格式是 interleaved 还是 noninterleaved，播放还是录制，数据缓冲区是否为空，操作是由内核空间代码发起还是由用户空间代码发起等，选择 writer 和 transfer 操作。writer 和 transfer 操作主要用于在传入的数据缓冲区和 DMA buffer 之间传递数据。

3. 检查 runtime 的状态，当状态不为 SNDRV_PCM_STATE_PREPARED、SNDRV_PCM_STATE_RUNNING 和 SNDRV_PCM_STATE_PAUSED 时，报错并返回。

4. 当 runtime 状态为 SNDRV_PCM_STATE_RUNNING 时，调用 snd_pcm_update_hw_ptr(substream) 函数更新 hw_ptr。

5. 对于音频录制，如果 runtime 状态为 SNDRV_PCM_STATE_PREPARED，且请求录制的帧数超过发起阈值，则调用 snd_pcm_start(substream) 函数触发录制。

6. 调用 snd_pcm_avail(substream) 函数获得 DMA buffer 中以帧为单位的可用空间大小。
   用户空间应用程序和 Linux 内核设备驱动程序对 DMA buffer 的访问是典型的读者-写者模型。对于播放来说，用户空间应用程序向 DMA buffer 写入数据，Linux 内核设备驱动程序从 DMA buffer 读取数据并发送给硬件设备。对于录制来说，Linux 内核设备驱动程序从硬件设备获得数据并写入 DMA buffer，用户空间应用程序从 DMA buffer 读取数据并作进一步处理。
   这里的可用空间大小是站在用户空间应用程序的视角来说的，即对于播放来说，可用空间大小指还可以向 DMA buffer 写入的数据量，对于录制来说，则指可以从 DMA buffer 读取的数据量。

7. 通过一个循环，处理所有的数据传递请求。
   (1). 当 DMA buffer 的可用空间为 0 时，则等待直到可用空间大于 0。
   (2). 计算拷贝的数据量大小，拷贝的目的内存在 DMA buffer 中的位置等。
   (3). 调用 writer 和 transfer 操作在 DMA buffer 和传入的缓冲区之间传递数据，appl_ofs 作为 hwoff 参数传给 writer 操作。
   (4). 检查 runtime 的状态。
   (5). 更新并调用 pcm_lib_apply_appl_ptr() 函数应用新的 appl_ptr。
   (6). 根据传递的帧数，更新偏移量、要传递的帧数、已经传递的帧数和 DMA buffer 中可用的空间大小。
   (7). 对于音频播放，如果 runtime 状态为 SNDRV_PCM_STATE_PREPARED，且 DMA buffer 中可以播放的数据量超过发起阈值，则调用 snd_pcm_start(substream) 函数触发播放。

不同情况下，用于在传入的数据缓冲区和 DMA buffer 之间传递数据的 writer 和 transfer 操作定义 (位于 sound/core/pcm_lib.c) 如下：

/* calculate the target DMA-buffer position to be written/read */
static void *get_dma_ptr(struct snd_pcm_runtime *runtime,int channel, unsigned long hwoff)
{return runtime->dma_area + hwoff +channel * (runtime->dma_bytes / runtime->channels);
}/* default copy_user ops for write; used for both interleaved and non- modes */
static int default_write_copy(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream,int channel, unsigned long hwoff,void *buf, unsigned long bytes)
{if (copy_from_user(get_dma_ptr(substream->runtime, channel, hwoff),(void __user *)buf, bytes))return -EFAULT;return 0;
}/* default copy_kernel ops for write */
static int default_write_copy_kernel(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream,int channel, unsigned long hwoff,void *buf, unsigned long bytes)
{memcpy(get_dma_ptr(substream->runtime, channel, hwoff), buf, bytes);return 0;
}/* fill silence instead of copy data; called as a transfer helper* from __snd_pcm_lib_write() or directly from noninterleaved_copy() when* a NULL buffer is passed*/
static int fill_silence(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream, int channel,unsigned long hwoff, void *buf, unsigned long bytes)
{struct snd_pcm_runtime *runtime = substream->runtime;if (substream->stream != SNDRV_PCM_STREAM_PLAYBACK)return 0;if (substream->ops->fill_silence)return substream->ops->fill_silence(substream, channel,hwoff, bytes);snd_pcm_format_set_silence(runtime->format,get_dma_ptr(runtime, channel, hwoff),bytes_to_samples(runtime, bytes));return 0;
}/* default copy_user ops for read; used for both interleaved and non- modes */
static int default_read_copy(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream,int channel, unsigned long hwoff,void *buf, unsigned long bytes)
{if (copy_to_user((void __user *)buf,get_dma_ptr(substream->runtime, channel, hwoff),bytes))return -EFAULT;return 0;
}/* default copy_kernel ops for read */
static int default_read_copy_kernel(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream,int channel, unsigned long hwoff,void *buf, unsigned long bytes)
{memcpy(buf, get_dma_ptr(substream->runtime, channel, hwoff), bytes);return 0;
}/* call transfer function with the converted pointers and sizes;* for interleaved mode, it's one shot for all samples*/
static int interleaved_copy(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream,snd_pcm_uframes_t hwoff, void *data,snd_pcm_uframes_t off,snd_pcm_uframes_t frames,pcm_transfer_f transfer)
{struct snd_pcm_runtime *runtime = substream->runtime;/* convert to bytes */hwoff = frames_to_bytes(runtime, hwoff);off = frames_to_bytes(runtime, off);frames = frames_to_bytes(runtime, frames);return transfer(substream, 0, hwoff, data + off, frames);
}/* call transfer function with the converted pointers and sizes for each* non-interleaved channel; when buffer is NULL, silencing instead of copying*/
static int noninterleaved_copy(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream,snd_pcm_uframes_t hwoff, void *data,snd_pcm_uframes_t off,snd_pcm_uframes_t frames,pcm_transfer_f transfer)
{struct snd_pcm_runtime *runtime = substream->runtime;int channels = runtime->channels;void **bufs = data;int c, err;/* convert to bytes; note that it's not frames_to_bytes() here.* in non-interleaved mode, we copy for each channel, thus* each copy is n_samples bytes x channels = whole frames.*/off = samples_to_bytes(runtime, off);frames = samples_to_bytes(runtime, frames);hwoff = samples_to_bytes(runtime, hwoff);for (c = 0; c < channels; ++c, ++bufs) {if (!data || !*bufs)err = fill_silence(substream, c, hwoff, NULL, frames);elseerr = transfer(substream, c, hwoff, *bufs + off,frames);if (err < 0)return err;}return 0;
}

transfer 操作用于执行数据拷贝。根据发起数据传递的来源是内核还是用户空间应用程序，以及是播放还是录制，transfer 操作有四个默认实现，分别为 default_write_copy_kernel()、default_read_copy_kernel()、default_write_copy() 和 default_read_copy()，这几个函数根据 channel 和 hwoff 通过 get_dma_ptr() 函数获得 DMA 指针，并通过内核提供的 copy_from_user()、memcpy() 和 copy_to_user() 等函数在传入的数据缓冲区和 DMA buffer 之间传递数据。

从 get_dma_ptr() 函数可以看到，当数据格式为 noninterleaved 时，在 DMA buffer 中，各个 channel 的数据的布局。

writer 操作用于为数据拷贝做准备，它将帧为单位的偏移量和大小等数据拷贝参数转为以字节为单位，并调用 transfer 操作执行数据拷贝。writer 操作有两个默认实现，分别为 interleaved_copy() 和 noninterleaved_copy()。当数据格式为 noninterleaved 时，writer 操作分别拷贝各个 channel 的数据，传入的音频数据保存在多个不同的缓冲区中，每个通道一个，音频数据通过指针数组的方式传递。

writer 和 transfer 操作中用到的指向 DMA buffer 的 hwoff 偏移量，由 runtime->control->appl_ptr 计算而来，在关于 DMA buffer 访问的读者-写者模型中，对于播放，runtime->control->appl_ptr 是写指针，对于录制，它是读指针。

snd_pcm_avail() 函数用于获得 DMA buffer 中，用户空间应用程序视角的，以帧为单位的可用空间大小，Linux 内核还提供了另一个函数 snd_pcm_hw_avail()，用于获得音频硬件设备驱动视角的，以帧为单位的可用空间大小，这两个函数定义 (位于 sound/core/pcm_local.h) 如下：

static inline snd_pcm_uframes_t
snd_pcm_avail(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream)
{if (substream->stream == SNDRV_PCM_STREAM_PLAYBACK)return snd_pcm_playback_avail(substream->runtime);elsereturn snd_pcm_capture_avail(substream->runtime);
}static inline snd_pcm_uframes_t
snd_pcm_hw_avail(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream)
{if (substream->stream == SNDRV_PCM_STREAM_PLAYBACK)return snd_pcm_playback_hw_avail(substream->runtime);elsereturn snd_pcm_capture_hw_avail(substream->runtime);
}

这两个函数根据流的类型是播放还是录制，将操作分派给另外四个函数 snd_pcm_playback_avail()、snd_pcm_capture_avail()、snd_pcm_playback_hw_avail() 和 snd_pcm_capture_hw_avail()。snd_pcm_playback_avail() 等函数定义 (位于 include/sound/pcm.h) 如下：

/*** snd_pcm_playback_avail - Get the available (writable) space for playback* @runtime: PCM runtime instance** Result is between 0 ... (boundary - 1)*/
static inline snd_pcm_uframes_t snd_pcm_playback_avail(struct snd_pcm_runtime *runtime)
{snd_pcm_sframes_t avail = runtime->status->hw_ptr + runtime->buffer_size - runtime->control->appl_ptr;if (avail < 0)avail += runtime->boundary;else if ((snd_pcm_uframes_t) avail >= runtime->boundary)avail -= runtime->boundary;return avail;
}/*** snd_pcm_capture_avail - Get the available (readable) space for capture* @runtime: PCM runtime instance** Result is between 0 ... (boundary - 1)*/
static inline snd_pcm_uframes_t snd_pcm_capture_avail(struct snd_pcm_runtime *runtime)
{snd_pcm_sframes_t avail = runtime->status->hw_ptr - runtime->control->appl_ptr;if (avail < 0)avail += runtime->boundary;return avail;
}/*** snd_pcm_playback_hw_avail - Get the queued space for playback* @runtime: PCM runtime instance*/
static inline snd_pcm_sframes_t snd_pcm_playback_hw_avail(struct snd_pcm_runtime *runtime)
{return runtime->buffer_size - snd_pcm_playback_avail(runtime);
}/*** snd_pcm_capture_hw_avail - Get the free space for capture* @runtime: PCM runtime instance*/
static inline snd_pcm_sframes_t snd_pcm_capture_hw_avail(struct snd_pcm_runtime *runtime)
{return runtime->buffer_size - snd_pcm_capture_avail(runtime);
}

关于 DMA buffer 访问的读者-写者模型中，对于播放，runtime->status->hw_ptr 是读指针，(runtime->control->appl_ptr - runtime->status->hw_ptr) 是已经写入，但还未播放的数据量，对于录制，runtime->status->hw_ptr 是写指针。

__snd_pcm_lib_xfer() 函数调用 snd_pcm_start() 函数触发数据传递开始执行，这个函数定义 (位于 sound/core/pcm_native.c) 如下：

/** start callbacks*/
static int snd_pcm_pre_start(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream,snd_pcm_state_t state)
{struct snd_pcm_runtime *runtime = substream->runtime;if (runtime->status->state != SNDRV_PCM_STATE_PREPARED)return -EBADFD;if (substream->stream == SNDRV_PCM_STREAM_PLAYBACK &&!snd_pcm_playback_data(substream))return -EPIPE;runtime->trigger_tstamp_latched = false;runtime->trigger_master = substream;return 0;
}static int snd_pcm_do_start(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream,snd_pcm_state_t state)
{if (substream->runtime->trigger_master != substream)return 0;return substream->ops->trigger(substream, SNDRV_PCM_TRIGGER_START);
}static void snd_pcm_undo_start(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream,snd_pcm_state_t state)
{if (substream->runtime->trigger_master == substream)substream->ops->trigger(substream, SNDRV_PCM_TRIGGER_STOP);
}static void snd_pcm_post_start(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream,snd_pcm_state_t state)
{struct snd_pcm_runtime *runtime = substream->runtime;snd_pcm_trigger_tstamp(substream);runtime->hw_ptr_jiffies = jiffies;runtime->hw_ptr_buffer_jiffies = (runtime->buffer_size * HZ) / runtime->rate;runtime->status->state = state;if (substream->stream == SNDRV_PCM_STREAM_PLAYBACK &&runtime->silence_size > 0)snd_pcm_playback_silence(substream, ULONG_MAX);snd_pcm_timer_notify(substream, SNDRV_TIMER_EVENT_MSTART);
}static const struct action_ops snd_pcm_action_start = {.pre_action = snd_pcm_pre_start,.do_action = snd_pcm_do_start,.undo_action = snd_pcm_undo_start,.post_action = snd_pcm_post_start
};/*** snd_pcm_start - start all linked streams* @substream: the PCM substream instance** Return: Zero if successful, or a negative error code.* The stream lock must be acquired before calling this function.*/
int snd_pcm_start(struct snd_pcm_substream *substream)
{return snd_pcm_action(&snd_pcm_action_start, substream,SNDRV_PCM_STATE_RUNNING);
}

这里调用音频硬件设备驱动程序的 trigger 操作，触发发起硬件的数据传输。